Plug the red lead in positive (+) jack A, and plug the black lead in the common () jack of the multimeter. While performing maintenance to the PV components it is must to refer the component specification sheet or the catalogue provided by the supplier so that one is properly familiar with the component and also the necessary precautions to be taken while maintaining the component. The current output is directly proportional to the cell area. The ratio of electrical energy generated to the input light energy is referred as conversion efficiency of solar cells. For instance, under Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, the government is awarding the contracts to install solar PV power plants in capacity of 5 MWp. The main parameters useful for practical applications are Voltage and ampere-hour. At the end of the chapter, we will get introduced to multimeter which is the most essential tool to measure electricity and its related parameters. 238 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers PV module sizing: For this example, we need to supply daily energy of 2689 Wh/day. Peak efficiency = 98.6% Using small capacity inverters Note that, many times, one can also use small capacity inverters for large power applications. In series connection, the negative terminal of one battery is connected to the positive terminal of other battery. Checking continuity Checking continuity indicates whether a circuit is open or closed. The module mismatch loss is, therefore, 3%. In a PV module string, a number of solar PV modules are connected in series to increase the voltage output. This book would not have come to its completion without the help of a number of people during the writing of the book, I literally mean it. one way wire length) is 12 feet. These components are referred as Balance of Systems (BoS). There is only point in the I-V characteristics of PV module at which the power delivered by the module is maximum, called maximum power point. If we know the current and voltage at the input side we can find out the DC power feed at input side. Generally, wires are coated with any insulating material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC), nylon, polyester, etc., to prevent shock hazards and energy loss through unwanted current conduction and avoid short circuit between two wires running together. The advantages of junction boxes into an electrical circuit are: 9.7 Checklist 1. In addition, it is a post training referral resource in troubleshooting and maintenance of systems. Charge Controller, MPPT and Inverters 8.1 Need for BoS 168 8.2 Power Converters and Their Efficiency 169 8.2.1 Importance of Efficiency of Power Converters 171 8.3 AC to DC Converters 171 8.4 DC to AC Converter (Inverters) 172 8.4.1 Types of Inverters 173 8.4.2 Inverter Specifications 173 8.4.3 Typical Inverter Specifications 175 8.4.4 Troubleshooting177 8.5 DC to DC Power Converters 177 8.6 Charge Controllers 179 8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4 8.6.5 Function of a Charge Controller 179 Working of Charge Controller 179 Types of Charge Controllers 180 Features of Charge Controller 180 Typical Specifications of PWM Charge Controller 181 8.7 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) 183 8.7.1 8.7.2 8.7.3 8.7.4 Power Output from a PV Module 183 Need for Maximum Power Point Tracking? 8.6.5 Typical Specifications of PWM Charge Controller Charge controllers are available for various ratings of Nominal system voltage and PV array current. These sources are available intermittently in cycles and can be harnessed during any number of cycles. This overview of solar photovoltaic systems will give the builder a basic understanding of: Evaluating a building site for its solar potential Common grid-connected PV system configurations and . There are a large number of solved examples included in the text that convey and clarify the various concepts covered in the manual. In addition to these factors, the material used for making any solar cells determines its properties and overall performance. In this way, they are equivalent to coal power plant or hydro power plants. 2.1.2 Forms of Energy In our daily life we use energy for many activities throughout the day. The wattage of each appliance is written on the appliance or on its cover. The resistance of wires and cables depends on their material, their length and their diameter. Strong 1987 Briey traces the history of the photovoltaic cell, discusses the . Electrons are considered as negative charge and holes are considered as positive charge. An example of such system is shown in Figure 10.6. with battery storage Figure 10.6 Grid connected SPV system with battery. Wirings are of correct rating and with required special features, if any. For instance, in standalone solar PV system, where the batteries are used to store the electrical energy for night time applications, the protection of battery is required. Figure 3.8 The effect of cell area on the output current for same light intensity and efficiency of the cell. The Y-axis of the graph is wire length in the units of feet and the X-axis of the graph is current in the units of ampere (A). 168 Chapter 8: Charge Controller, MPPT and Inverters Other than PV modules and batteries, there are several other components required for ensuring the smooth and reliable operation of solar PV systems, and these components are referred as Balance of System (BoS). 6. Therefore, in practical terms, we can assume that the fossil fuels are available in limited amount and continuous use of these fuels will result in their depletion from the earth. The total length of MV AC cables is twice the distance between transformer and grid distribution centre. The parameters of the solar PV modules (Voc, Isc, Wp), mentioned by the manufacturer are measured under some standard conditions of temperature (25C) and solar radiation (1000 W/m2). It is observed that the insulation (PVC) starts melting around 80C. DC input power to inverter (kW) 1 saftey factor 4.34 4.34 4.34 = = = = 5.11 kW 1 - (15/100) 1 - 0.15 0.85 Note that this is the input power rating of inverter. If you are unsure about the batterys state of charge, then charge the battery. The resistivity is the intrinsic property of a material and it does not change with the dimensions of material. Many manufacturers combine the function of charge controller and MPPT in one single device which is called MPPT charge controller and is shown in Figure 8.15. Thus, in non-sunshine hours or in night, the energy output from PV module is zero. From Section 1.6, we would have understood what electrical power is. Both of these units are commonly used to represent electrical energy as well as solar radiation energy. An example is shown in Table 10.11. The current density is given in units of A/cm2 or mA/cm2. Electrical energy Voltage (both DC and AC) can be measured by directly connecting the voltage 1.9.3 meter (voltmeter) or the multimeter (in voltage mode) to the terminals of the voltage Measurement of DC Voltage source (battery, PV module, single phase AC power supply, etc.). h (%) Pin (W/m2) A (cm2) A (m2) h/100 Pmax = (h/100) Pin A (W) 30 1000 100 0.01 0.30 3.0 24 1000 100 0.01 0.24 2.4 19 1000 100 0.01 0.19 1.9 16 1000 100 0.01 0.16 1.6 12 1000 100 0.01 0.12 1.2 From the above table, it clear that when efficiency of a solar cell reduces the output power generated is also reduces. Step 1: DC voltage of series-parallel connected solar PV array = DC voltage of series connected string. Due to this reason, for the same power, there is larger voltage drop at DC side (V = I R) and hence it is important to choose appropriate conductor with low resistance to minimize voltage loss in the DC wires and cables in PV systems. of batteries. If the voltage is less, the resultant pressure on electrons is less and, therefore, current will be less. The valve is provided in the battery to regulate the pressure inside the battery. The different energy units are related with each other through different constants. The details of the system can be found in Chapter 11. Model X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Module Module Module Module Module Module Module 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Pm (Wp) Voc (V) Isc (A) Vm (V) Im (A) 125 135 145 200 210 230 240 22.1 22.0 22.4 32.5 41.59 36.0 37.38 7.9 8.38 8.5 8.42 7.13 8.45 8.45 18.2 17.7 18.35 26.1 33.81 28.6 30.60 6.9 7.63 7.9 7.66 6.21 8.05 7.85 Table 11.2 Typical Parameter of Commercially Available Grid-connected Inverters AC power output (kVA) 5 10 17 250 500 1000 Model Inveter Inveter Inveter Inveter Inveter Inveter 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maximum DC input voltage (V) Maximum power point (MPP) voltage tracking range (V) Maximum DC current (A) Peak efficiency (%) 600 600 600 600 600 1000 80120 100160 400800 330600 330600 460875 50 75 35 800 1470 2100 97.0 97.5 98.2 97.5 98.6 98.6 Number of PV modules required: In this example, total PV array capacity required is 5.57 or about 6 kWp (from Step 8). Power fed to load (kW) AC power output of inverter (in kW) = (1 - AC power losses) Thus, inverter AC output power = 4 4 4 = = = 4.21 kW 1 - (5/100) 1 - 0.05 0.95 268 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers Step 5Estimate the DC power input to inverter: The input to inverter will be DC power. In case the acid splits, then it should be immediately neutralized by baking soda. This chapter gives details about the characteristics of various electronics components like charge controller, inverter, MPPT etc. The next step is to measure the open circuit voltage of the PV array. Ensure that the installation of wiring to the DC or AC isolator switch and surge protection devices is ground fault and short circuit proof. 9. PV array, combiner box, inverter, DC and AC distribution box require grounding. 180 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers Figure 8.10 Basic block diagram of a standalone PV system with battery back-up and charge controller. So, the total voltage of parallel connected batteries remains the same but the capacity increases. It is measured in ampere (A). 4. h= I Voc FF Pm = sc Pin Pin A Here, the Pin is input power corresponding to STC, which is 1000 W/m2. The wind energy can be used in many ways. Normally, about 5% to 25% power is lost within the power converters, and corresponding efficiency of the converters is in the range of 75% to 95%. Helps to avoid wire shortage situations due to repairing works. The standalone PV systems are normally small, few kW to 10 kW and does not have very high current and voltage levels. Based on the above discussion, it should be easy now for anybody to estimate the energy requirement for a given application, for a given period of time. 11.3.2 Array Combiner Box An array combiner box is used to electrically interconnect solar PV strings to make an array. The extent of degradation of AC power or the quality of AC power is measured using the term Total Harmonic Distorsion (THD). Problem 11.11: A location has solar radiation of 5.7 kWh/m2/day. I wish to acknowledge their help with deep gratitude, and thank them from bottom of my heart. For DC voltages > 50 V, the two pole DC isolator switch must have at least 5 mm gap between the contacts in order to enable safe and reliable isolation. Ease to identify faults and check system performance. Then insert a PV string fuse in the first string fuse holder and Chapter 12: Installation, Troubleshooting and Safety 301 close the associated disconnect. In practice, because of the changing ambient solar radiation, the I-V characteristics 8.7.2 Need for Maximum Power of PV modules change throughout the day. DC current 4. Inverter 6. We use energy in cooking our food, cooling our spaces, travelling from one point to other, transportation of goods, watching TV, using our mobile phones, running machines in an industry, water pumping, and so on. Assume that grid is available full time and no battery storage is required. The THD value for good quality sine waver inverters is always less than 4%. Hence, sealed Lead-acid Deep cycle battery is the ideal choice used widely in the PV systems. Solar Photovoltaic Project Development has no graphics and smaller font text, and is intended more as a text for teachers both to support the technical training manual making it easy to relate student and teacher materials, and to discuss wider issues relating to project development for solar photovoltaic systems. The Tubular electrode designs are used in batteries for deep discharge cycle. A solar cell is a small device in terms of area, and the electricity a single solar cell can generate is also small as compared to our electricity needs. . When we divide the generated current by area of solar cells, we get current/area or current per unit area, which is also referred as current density. The plate packs in a plate block has cell connectors which act as cell terminals. Solar Power Design Manual ClickBank. Similarly, less amount of electric current will be generated when the cell area is small. Example 7.3 How can we obtain 450 Ah capacity by using 12 V lead-acid batteries of 150 Ah? Follow steps 18 to 22 for the second discharge cycle. The average operating temperature of the module cell depends on the average ambient temperature conditions. As the demand for solar electric systems grows, progressive builders are adding solar photovoltaics (PV) as an option for their customers. The method for finding diameter of wire presented in paragraphs (how to read graphs) can be used for any other situation as well. They are cheap and easily disposable. Therefore a mechanism for effective energy storage and efficient recovery is required. Inverter should be able to supply the surge power required by the inductive loads. No heavy or sharp edge items should be placed on them to avoid damage to the glass cover. The variation of AC current with respect to time is shown in Figure 1.8(c). The cell gives 3.5 A short circuit current and 0.6 V open circuit voltage. 10 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers Figure 1.7 DC circuit showing (a) DC current direction, (b) DC current direction reverses with battery polarity, (c) DC current definition and (d) DC voltage definition. The more the diameter of the pipe, the more the current of water. It has become an integral part of our daily life, and it is difficult to even think of a day without consuming any energy. terminals. It is stored in batteries and then supplied to the load when required. The definition of the power can be presented in terms of the following equation: Power (watt) = Energy (joule) (2.2) Time (second) Power (watt) = Energy (watt-hour) (2.3) Time (hour) or Power is defined as the rate of energy usage. There are several parameters of solar cells that determine the effectiveness of sunlight to electricity conversion. Fill factor (FF): As the name suggests, FF is the ratio of the areas covered by Im-Vm rectangle with the area covered by Isc-Voc rectangle (both shown by dotted line in Figure 3.4), whose equation is given below. R 2 AC power, Prms = Irms Vrms watt = 10 5 = 50 mW. Figure 11.7 shows a schematic of grid support solar PV power system. Therefore, I would like to take this opportunity to thank them. The series connection is used to increase voltage output while a parallel connection is used to increase current output. Tank can be emptied in 10 minutes or in 1 minute. Two rows of PV panels are mounted with space adequate to avoid shadow of one row of panels onto the other. Rolling or throwing battery should be forbidden. During DC power to AC power conversion in a grid-connected inverter, some power is lost in inverter. It indicates that the resistance of a wire increases with its length. Solar PV array 2. Step 5Energy generation potential after considering module losses: So far we have estimated the energy generation potential of 1 MW plant for a given site under ideal condition. Normally, the sites which have higher temperature also have higher solar radiation. Also, in last 1 to 2 years, the prices of PV modules have fallen significantly. Check the polarity of all PV strings and PV array both at combiner boxes and at inverters. The system mainly consists of solar PV array and DC to AC inverter. The step by step approach is presented in the form of design chart. Advantages Solar cell uses sunlight as an input fuel source, which is abundant, sustainable and environmentally friendly energy source. Step 2 DC voltage of parallel-connected solar PV string: DC voltage of parallelconnected solar PV string = DC voltage of individual solar PV module. Even if it fails to supply electricity to the load due to some reason, as a technician we should be able to detect the fault and repair it as soon as possible. The power of electrical appliances is given in terms of watt and duration of usage can be given in terms of hour. But once you are in practice, the solar PV system design can be done in very short time. The replacement and maintenance of lead-acid batteries are simple. So, let us see what is a solar cell? Installation, Troubleshooting and Safety 285301 12.1 Summary of PV System Components 285 12.2 Summary of Types of Solar PV Systems 286 12.2.1 Standalone Solar PV System 286 12.2.2 Grid-connected or On-grid SPV System 287 12.2.3 Hybrid Solar PV System 287 12.3 Installation and Troubleshooting of Standalone Solar PV Systems 287 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3 12.3.4 Installing PV System Components: BoS 288 Installing Mechanical Structure and Mounting of PV Modules 289 Maintenance of Solar PV System 289 Troubleshooting of PV System Components 291 12.4 Safety in Installation of Solar PV Systems 293 12.4.1 Electrical Safety 293 12.4.2 Safety Precautions for Batteries 294 12.4.3 Mechanical Safety 294 12.5 Installation and Troubleshooting of Solar PV Power Plants 294 12.5.1 Preparation for Installation 295 12.5.2 General Considerations for Installation 295 12.5.3 Installation of Array Support Structure 295 12.5.4 General Notes on DC Installation 295 12.5.5 Installation of Modules 296 12.5.6 Interconnection of Modules, Strings and Combiner Boxes 296 12.5.7 DC and AC Cable Layout and Connection Guidelines 297 12.5.8 Grounding Considerations 297 12.5.9 Installation of DC and AC Power Distribution Boxes 298 12.5.10 Installation of Inverter 298 12.6 Solar PV Plant Installation Check List 299 12.6.1 12.6.2 12.6.3 12.6.4 Electrical Testing of PV Array 299 Electrical Testing of Inverter 299 Testing of Islanding Protection 300 Commissioning and System Functional Testing 300 Index 303306 Preface I ndia has launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) in 200910 with the ambitious target of installing 20,000 MW of solar power, solar Photovoltaic (PV) as well as solar thermal, in the country by year 2022. The background support provided by office staff was great. For measuring the current the probes of the multimeter should be connected in series with the source and the load. So, the working of a solar cell can be explained as follows: 1. For instance, in order to design 1 MWp plant, instead of using one 1000 kVA inverter, one can also use two inverters of 500 kVA capacity. Step 9Estimate required number PV modules: For this purpose, one can choose the modules that are available in the market, their making and power rating. The network of the grid in the form of wires is hundreds of kilometre long. At the emitter-base junction, the separation of negative and positive charge takes place. Charging methods When the battery voltage drops down below some threshold level, then we have to charge that battery in a different method. The preparation of the active material precursor involves a sequence of mixing and curing process using lead oxide (PbO + Pb), sulfuric acid, and water. Their support provides me confidence in my work and encouragement to do better. In this type of PV systems configuration, no energy storage is used because the main function of such systems is to generate power when the sun shines. Moreover, water and wind power have been used as energy sources since the earliest driven machinery. Using these PV modules, the PV systems of capacity from few kW to MW level plants can be installed. Hence, different types of solar cells have different values of solar cell parameters like efficiency (h), short circuit current density (Jsc), open circuit voltage (Voc) and Fill Factor (FF). The solar radiation data is available in the form of Table for several cities of India. Module soiling losses: The modules are typically soiled by dust, dirt, bird droppings etc. Photons in the sunlight falling on the solar cells front face are absorbed by semiconducting materials. As a result, for a given load characteristics, the operating point also changes. Many 2 V cells are connected in series as shown in Figure 6.14 and described in the preceding section. 6 8 2 3 Number of appliances (in numbers) Daily energy requirement (watt hour number) or Wh 3 2 1 1 0216 0800 0300 0750 2066 The daily energy requirement from Table 2.10 is 2066 Wh. The location where the battery is installed should be away from the electricity and electrical switches etc. Gas: Explosive gas may be generated in the battery, so, combustibles such as spark, flame and fumy materials should be prohibited in the battery room. The average cost of a kilowatt-hour of electricity for residential customers is about `2. We must generate solar PV power in large amounts, in several watts, kW and MW. We use sometimes in electrical form, sometime in thermal form, some time in solar radiation form, etc. At the same time, it is necessary to know the potential in that conductor and the safe distance to be kept by a personal. 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